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A Strategy for Canada's Pacific Coast
Marine protected areas are a vital part
of our commitment to sustainable economies, viable coastal
communities, and a healthy, diverse marine environment.
Our goals are to protect and conserve the natural beauty
and richness of our marine areas, to maintain ecological
diversity, and to preserve the many recreational, natural
and cultural features of our Pacific coastline for all
time.
DISCUSSION PAPER
August 1998
A Joint Initiative of the Governments of
Canada and British Columbia
On behalf of the governments of Canada
and British Columbia we are pleased to present this discussion
paper, "Marine
Protected Areas, A Strategy for Canada's Pacific Coast".
The Pacific coast of Canada is one of the most diverse
and
productive marine environments in the world - we rely on
it in many ways, as a source of food, employment, recreation
and spiritual renewal. We want to build and protect this
richness for present and future generations. Our commitment
to a Marine Protected Areas Strategy is a key piece of
the
foundation for this goal.
This Strategy has been developed jointly by federal and
provincial agencies and clearly reflects the need for governments
to work in unison to achieve common marine protection and
conservation goals. The Strategy is not a new program, but
an initiative to coordinate all existing federal and provincial
marine protected areas programs under a single umbrella.
This will allow for the development of a national system
of marine protected areas on the Pacific coast by the year
2010 which is interlinked with the marine component of the
B.C. Protected Areas Strategy.
This discussion paper reflects extensive advice and feedback
from our resource agency staff, as well as local governments,
First Nations, and community, stakeholder and industry perspectives.
We now want to provide all marine interests and users an
opportunity to review and comment further on the Strategy.
We are pleased that Canada and British
Columbia are able to release this paper in 1998-the International
Year of
the Ocean. The success of conserving and protecting natural
marine areas is a shared responsibility, we look forward
to working with you to complete a "Marine Protected
Areas Strategy for Canada's Pacific Coast".
Signed by Donna Petrachenko (Director-General, Pacific
Region - Department of Fisheries and Oceans) Co-chair, MPA
Strategy Steering Committee
Signed by Derek Thompson (Assistant Deputy Minister
- British Columbia Land Use Coordination Office) Co-chair,
MPA Strategy Steering Committee
The Pacific coast is host to a multitude of ecological,
social, cultural and economic values which provide benefits
and opportunities for all who have the good fortune to enjoy
our spectacularly beautiful maritime coastline. Few people
know that our coast is also among the most biologically
productive in the world and continues to generate tremendous
wealth for British Columbians and Canadians.
We have recognized that the sustainability of the world's
oceans is increasingly becoming a critical concern to coastal
nations. The need to maintain the health and vitality of
our marine resource base, together with broad ranging global
issues such as continued urbanization of coastal areas,
pollution, habitat alteration and loss, and over exploitation,
are key concerns. These problems and opportunities are fueling
our desire to establish a system of marine protected areas
along the Pacific coast of Canada as one essential tool
to address the needs of our oceans.
The MPA Strategy proposes three important elements:
- A joint federal-provincial approach: All relevant
federal and provincial agencies will work collaboratively
to exercise their authorities to protect marine areas.
- Shared decision-making with the public: Commits
government agencies to employ an inclusive, shared decision-making
process with marine stakeholders, First Nations, coastal
communities, and the public.
- Building a comprehensive system: Seeks to build
an extensive system of protected areas by the year 2010
through a series of coastal planning processes.
The benefits of marine protected areas are many, and include:
- contributing to the protection of the structure, function
and integrity of ecosystems;
- encouraging expansion of our knowledge and understanding
of marine systems;
- enhancing non-consumptive and sustainable activities;
and,
- improving the health of our ocean resources.
A total of 104 marine protected areas on the Pacific coast
have already been established. These were put into place
using a variety of legislative tools and they consist predominantly
of relatively small marine parks, ecological reserves and
wildlife management areas created to meet specific conservation
and recreation needs. In the past, the need to work in collaboration
to reach mutual goals was not apparent, and the majority
of protected areas were created by individual federal and
provincial agencies operating on their own.
Central to this Strategy are a number of coastal planning
processes which would be undertaken by governments over
time throughout six major coastal regions (see Section 5.2).
These planning processes are inclusive and collaborative,
in order to involve everyone with an active interest and
to ensure that general and specific uses of coastal and
marine areas, including Marine Protected Areas, are addressed.
For example, as part of the coordinated planning approach,
Canada and B.C. signed an agreement in 1995 called the Pacific
Marine Heritage Legacy (PMHL), which has as its central
vision the creation of a system of marine and coastal protected
areas along the entire Pacific coast. The current focus
of the PMHL is the acquisition of land in the southern Gulf
Islands and the consideration of a complementary Marine
Conservation Area in the Gulf Islands' encompassing waters.
To date, a federal-provincial government Working Group
and senior management Steering Committee have been working
to develop this Strategy discussion paper. However, broader
public involvement and acceptance is needed and will be
essential to the success of the Strategy. This paper provides
readers with an overview of the proposed Strategy and invites
comments. Section 6.0 in particular poses specific
questions to which we are seeking your comments.
"Marine protected areas" are
sites in tidal waters that enjoy some level of protection
within their respective
jurisdictions, although internationally the term may be
defined and interpreted quite differently from jurisdiction
to jurisdiction. For example, the World Conservation
Union
uses it as a generic label for protected marine areas such
as sanctuaries, parks, reserves, harvest refugia and
harvest
replenishment areas. Under the new Canada Oceans Act,
Fisheries and Oceans Canada has authority to formally
designate Marine Protected Areas, however, in this discussion
paper, we have agreed to use the term broadly to describe
all the federal and provincial designations that protect
marine environments.
Sidebar #1: What are Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas could include:
-unique coastal inlets, bays or channels;
-representative marine areas;
-boat havens with important anchorages;
-marine-oriented wilderness areas;
-cultural heritage features;
-critical spawning locations and estuaries;
-species-specific harvesting refugia;
-foraging areas for seabird colonies;
-summer feeding and nursery grounds for whales;
-offshore sea mounts or hydrothermal seavents; and
-a host of other special marine environments and features.
Regardless of the particular designation, all marine protected
areas (MPAs) under the Strategy would:
1. Be defined in law
The legal authority to establish an MPA will derive from
one of several federal and provincial statutes including:
Canada's Oceans Act, Fisheries Act, National Parks Act,
Canada Wildlife Act, Migratory Birds Convention Act,
or proposed Marine Conservation Areas Act; and British
Columbia's Ecological Reserve Act, Park Act, Wildlife
Act or Environment and Land Use Act.
2. Protect all or a portion of the elements within a
particular marine environment
The federal and provincial governments have differing and,
at times, overlapping jurisdiction in marine areas. Depending
upon the statute under which an MPA is created, the area
may comprise any combination of the overlying waters, the
seabed and underlying subsoil, associated flora and fauna,
and historical and cultural features.
3. Ensure Minimum Protection Standards
All MPAs would share Minimum Protection Standards prohibiting:
- ocean dumping;
- dredging; and,
- the exploration for, or development of, non-renewable
resources.
Building on these minimum protection standards, the system
of MPAs will accommodate multiple levels of protection.
Levels of protection provided by an MPA will vary depending
upon the objectives for each site. For example, MPAs may
be highly protected areas that sustain species and habitats;
areas that are established primarily for recreational use
or cultural heritage protection; or multiple use areas that
balance resource conservation with recreational and other
activities such as commercial and sport fishing. Even within
a particular MPA, levels of protection may vary through
the use of zoning specifying permissible activities for
sub-areas.
Establishing a system of MPAs is only one part of an integrated
approach to oceans management, but it is an essential one.
MPAs help conserve the ocean's life-giving services, species
and habitats to ensure that our coastal resources can continue
to support present and future generations. The intent of
MPAs is not to take anything away. Quite the opposite. MPAs
can contribute to the restoration and conservation of marine
resources for people whose livelihoods depend on harvesting.
As well, they can support a wide range of recreational and
aesthetic values, providing a win-win for all. Perhaps most
importantly, they will help us to protect the quality of
life we cherish. They are an insurance policy for our future.
Sidebar #2: Marine Protected Areas in a Global Context
The establishment of MPAs now occurs in many coastal nations
around the world. While still less numerous than terrestrial
protected areas, more than 1,300 MPAs have been created
worldwide. MPAs have gained a high level of acceptance as
a tool to help achieve the conservation of marine biodiversity,
the sustainability of commercial and sport fisheries, and
the viability of coastal communities that depend upon them.
Early efforts in the evolution of MPAs as a management
tool took place mostly in tropical and sub-tropical waters-in
the Florida Keys in 1935, in Australia's Great Barrier Reef
in 1936, the Philippines in 1941, the Bahamas in 1958 and
Mexico in 1960. Still today, most MPAs around the world
have been established in these warmer marine environments,
focusing on such important features as coral reefs, seagrass
habitats and coastal mangroves. Temperate waters such as
Canada's have not been the subject of the same level of
conservation efforts and the high levels of public awareness
that, for example, the Great Barrier Reef generates.
B.C. has been the most active of Canadian provinces in
the establishment of MPAs. The designation in 1925 of Glacier
Bay National Park in Alaska may be the only MPA in the world's
temperate waters to predate B.C.'s first marine parks at
Montague Harbour and Rebecca Spit in 1957. Many of these
early marine parks in B.C. were small, protecting anchorages
and scenic shoreline areas important to recreational boaters.
Beginning in the 1960s, and continuing through the 1970s
and 1980s, however, the world began to recognize the merits
of MPAs as management tools for conservation, as well as
for recreation, and called for the establishment of larger
and more conservation-oriented MPAs. B.C. and Canada responded
with the creation of new and larger areas such as Desolation
Sound Provincial Park, Pacific Rim National Park Reserve
(half of which is waters of the open Pacific Ocean), and
Checleset Bay Ecological Reserve.
Today, B.C. and Canada manage 104 MPAs, totaling about
1955 square kilometres. In addition, Canada is in the process
of establishing the 3050 square kilometres Gwaii Haanas
National Marine Conservation Area in the southern Queen
Charlotte Islands.
The motivation to protect marine areas derives from a widespread
appreciation of the beauty and bounty of the world's oceans
in the face of numerous pressures now affecting its health
and stability. Largely a consequence of human activities,
the serious stresses placed upon our oceans globally have
given rise to calls for coastal nations to make conservation
and preservation of marine biodiversity and ecosystems a
worldwide priority. This is the strongest message in the
United Nations initiative to declare 1998 as the International
Year of the Ocean.
3.1 Values of Canada's Pacific Marine and Coastal Environments
With more than 29,500 kilometers of coastline, 6,500 islands
and approximately 450,000 square kilometres of internal
and offshore waters, the marine and coastal environments
of Canada's Pacific coast have an impressive variety of
marine landforms, habitats and oceanographic phenomena that
accommodate a broad range of species diversity. Island archipelagos,
deep fjords, shallow mudflats, estuaries, kelp and eel grass
beds, strong tidal currents and massive upwellings all contribute
to an abundant and diverse assemblage of species.
The Pacific coast of Canada is one of the most spectacular
and biologically productive marine and coastal environments
of any temperate nation in the world. The northeast Pacific
represents a significant and varied collection of marine
invertebrates comprised of more than 6,500 species. In the
vertebrate family, there are 400 fish species, 161 marine
birds, 29 marine mammals, and one of the world's largest
populations of orcas; there are nesting grounds for 80 percent
of the world's population of Cassin's auklet, and wintering
grounds for 60 - 90 percent of the world's Barrow's goldeneye;
as well, the region boasts of the world's heaviest recorded
sea star, and largest octopus, sea slug, chiton and barnacle.
Recognized as a spectacular and productive marine and coastal
region, the northeast Pacific contributes significantly
to B.C.'s economy and strongly influences the culture and
identity of its residents. It is estimated that the Pacific
marine environment contributes up to $4 billion annually
to the coast's economy. In addition, one in every three
dollars spent on tourism in B.C. goes toward marine or marine-related
activities.
B.C.'s marine regions also contain a rich cultural history.
For the First Nations peoples who have lived along the shores
for thousands of years, many coastal areas remain important
for food, social, ceremonial, and spiritual purposes. The
cultural history of the Pacific coast is further illustrated
by numerous physical relics of the past, such as ship wrecks
and whaling stations.
As well, a vast array of recreational opportunities are
available in coastal areas. For example, the Inside Passage
is one of the most popular cruising and sailing destinations
globally, and kayakers are attracted to the numerous archipelagos
peppered along the coast. In a recent divers survey, British
Columbia's coast was rated as the best overall destination
in North America, even when compared to such tropical destinations
as the Florida Keys, the Gulf of Mexico and southern California.
Some of these significant ecological, cultural, and recreational
values are already protected in MPAs along the B.C. coast.
Much of the current system has, however, been established
in an ad hoc manner with an emphasis on near-shore
environments. The result is that many marine values and
ecosystems remain underrepresented, and the levels of protection
both between and within protective designations vary significantly.
3.2 Threats to Marine Ecosystems
1. Physical alteration of critical habitat and marine
areas
The alteration, deterioration or degradation of habitat
has a significant impact on marine ecosystems. Habitats
may be damaged through actions such as dredging and filling,
trawling, anchoring, trampling and unauthorized visitation,
noise pollution, siltation from land based activities, and
altered freshwater inputs. Most habitat loss in B.C. occurs
in estuaries and nearshore areas, but deeper areas can also
be affected by ocean dumping. A primary concern in B.C.
is the degradation and loss of eelgrass habitat, which is
important for numerous fish and shellfish species as part
of their life cycles.
2. Excessive harvest of resources
History has clearly shown that the productive capacity
of the seas and their ability to deliver resources to the
needs of humankind are limited. In addition to the economic
and social consequences of the excessive harvest of many
fish and shellfish species, there are other ecological consequences.
Recent research has suggested that around the world marine
resource harvesting is altering the natural cycle of marine
food webs. The continuation of this trend could result in
serious implications for people who depend on the oceans'
resources.
3. Pollution
While the water quality along Canada's Pacific coast is
generally considered to be quite good, there are many area
specific concerns. These sources of pollution may include
industrial and municipal wastewater discharges, agricultural
runoff, the dumping of dredged materials, and the threat
of oil and chemical spills. To date there has been no coast-wide
assessment of marine environmental quality, and no data
exist on either the current status of or long term trends
for water quality. One indicator of water quality - the
number of shellfish closures - has risen along the B.C.
coast to about 160 per year. This covers an area of approximately
100,000 hectares.
4. Foreign or exotic species of fishes and marine plants
The introduction of foreign or exotic marine species has
altered the composition of many biological communities on
the Pacific coast. Large areas of mudflat have been colonized
by an introduced eelgrass, rocky shorelines in the Strait
of Georgia are often covered in introduced oysters, and
one of the more common clams - the soft shell clam - has
also been introduced. While some of these impacts occurred
as far back as the turn of the century, others are still
happening, such as the recent northward expansion of the
green crab towards B.C.'s waters.
5. Global climate changes
Although the mechanisms driving long term climatic variations
are complex, and the role of human activities in these changes
has not been established, these fluctuations have a large
impact on the kinds and nature of species found in B.C.'s
waters at any particular time. For example, during the past
1997/98 El Nino event, species usually found only in warmer
waters migrated northward into B.C.'s waters, where in many
cases they consumed large numbers of local species.
4.1 The MPA Vision
Generations from now Canada will be one of the world's
coastal nations that have turned the tide on the decline
of its marine environments. Canada and British Columbia
will have put in place a comprehensive strategy for managing
the Pacific coast to ensure a healthy marine environment
and healthy economic future. A fundamental component of
this strategy will be the creation of a system of marine
protected areas on the Pacific coast of Canada by 2010.
This system will provide for a healthy and productive marine
environment while embracing recreational values and areas
of rich cultural heritage.
Along the coast of British Columbia, comprehensive coastal
planning processes will be undertaken, ensuring ecological,
social and economic sustainability. These processes will
provide the mechanism for establishing an MPA system and
ensuring a holistic, inclusive and multi-use approach
to resource use and marine management.
This is the vision behind the MPA Strategy, a future that
can be realized through a cooperative and integrated process,
and by a step-by-step commitment to the key objectives outlined
below.
4.2 Objectives for Establishing Marine Protected Areas
MPAs will serve a range of functions and exist in a wide
array of sizes, shapes, and designs. They are an important
conservation tool that, when used in conjunction with other
management applications, can result in many benefits for
coastal communities, tourists, and regional and national
economies. Under this proposed Strategy, the establishment
of a system of MPAs would serve six objectives:
1. To Contribute to the Protection of Marine Biodiversity,
Representative Ecosystems and Special Natural Features
MPAs can contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity
at all levels of the ecosystem, as well as protect food
web relationships and ecological processes. They give refuge
to vulnerable species thus helping to maintain species presence,
age, size distribution and abundance; they protect endangered
or threatened species, preventing species loss; and they
preserve the natural composition and special natural features
of the marine community.
Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms
and the living complexes of which they are a part. It is
expressed in the genetic variability within a species (such
as different stocks of the same species), in the number
of different species (e.g., 36 species of rockfish on the
Pacific coast), and in the variety of ecosystems and habitats
along the coast (such as different plant and animal communities
that appear with increasing water depth).
Representative ecosystems have been identified on
Canada's Pacific coast through the use of ecological classification
systems. Parks Canada has identified Marine Regions at the
national level to plan the system of Marine Conservation
Areas. At a more refined level, the B.C. government has
identified 12 marine ecoregions with 65 sub-component ecounits.
Both classification systems will help guide the planning
of the system of MPAs to ensure it is highly representative
of the diverse marine environments found on this coast.
Special natural features are elements of the environment
that are rare, outstanding or unique. These areas may include
stopover sites for certain migrating species, areas with
rare and unique capabilities for maintaining early-life
stages of important fish and shellfish species, and habitats
of high biodiversity, such as estuaries or upwelling areas.
While many of these elements may be captured within large,
representative MPAs, it is also necessary to specifically
identify and protect special, and often site-specific, features.
2. To Contribute to the Conservation and Protection
of Fishery Resources and Their Habitats
Conserving and protecting fish stocks is critical for the
sustainability and stability of many B.C. coastal communities.
As a result, stakeholders are keenly interested in the implications
of MPAs for all fisheries, whether First Nations,, recreational,
or commercial.
Studies of marine protected areas in temperate waters indicate
that they can increase population size, increase average
individual fish size, lead to the restoration of natural
species diversity, and increase population reproductive
capacity. Studies also indicate that subsequent spillover
benefits to harvested areas outside and adjacent to closed
areas often occurs.
MPAs can help maintain viable marine species populations
and support the continuation of sustainable fisheries by:
- Providing harvest refugia
- Protecting habitats, especially those critical to lifecycle
stages such as spawning, juvenile rearing and feeding
- Protecting spawning stocks and spawning stock biomass,
thus enhancing reproductive capacity
- Protecting areas for species, habitat, and ecosystem
restoration and recovery
- Enhancing local and regional fish stocks through increased
recruitment and spillover of adults and juveniles into
adjacent areas
- Assisting in conservation-based fisheries management
regimes
- Providing opportunities for scientific research
3. To Contribute to the Protection of Cultural Heritage
Resources and Encourage Understanding and Appreciation
Cultural resources are works of human origin, places that
provide evidence of human activity or occupation, or areas
with spiritual or cultural value. Some examples are archaeological
sites, shipwrecks, or cultural landscapes. Terrestrial cultural
resources have traditionally had more meaning than marine
cultural resources because they tend to be more evident
and observable. Yet thousands of years of human occupation,
including original First Nations cultures and early European
contact and settlement are represented in the marine environment.
MPAs can protect this rich cultural marine heritage and
preserve First Nations traditional use and practices.
4. To Provide Opportunities for Recreation and Tourism
MPAs can support marine and coastal outdoor recreation
and tourism, as well as the pursuit of activities of a spiritual
or aesthetic nature. The protection of special recreation
features, such as boat havens, safe anchorages, beaches
and marine travel routes, as well as the provision of activities
such as kayaking, SCUBA diving, and marine mammal watching
will help to secure the wealth and range of recreational
and tourism opportunities available along the coast.
5. To Provide Scientific Research Opportunities and
Support the Sharing of Traditional Knowledge
Scientific knowledge of the marine environment lags significantly
behind that for the terrestrial environment which can affect
the ability of marine managers to identify the merits of
protection or management options. MPAs provide increased
opportunities for scientific research on topics such as
species population dynamics, ecology and marine ecosystem
structure and function, as well as provide opportunities
for sharing traditional knowledge.
6. To Enhance Efforts for Increased Education and Awareness
Over the last few years, public understanding and awareness
of marine environmental values and issues have been increasing.
There is general recognition that proactive measures are
necessary to protect and conserve marine areas to sustain
their resources for present and future generations. However,
there is still a significant need for public education to
instill greater awareness of the role everyone can play
in the conservation of marine environments. Many MPAs will
afford unique opportunities for public education because
of their accessibility and potential to clearly demonstrate
marine ecological principles and values.
Sidebar #3: Guiding Principles for MPA Development
1. Working With People
The federal and provincial governments will work in partnership
with First Nations, coastal communities, marine stakeholders
and the public on MPA identification, establishment and
management.
2. Respecting First Nations and the Treaty Process
Canada and B.C. consider First Nations' support and participation
in the MPA Strategy as important and necessary. Both governments
will ensure and respect the continued use of MPAs by First
Nations for food, social and ceremonial purposes and other
traditional practices subject to conservation requirements.
Therefore, MPAs will not automatically preclude access or
activities critical to the livelihood or culture of First
Nations. The establishment of any MPA will not preclude
options for settlement of treaties, and will address opportunities
for First Nations to benefit from MPAs.
3. Fostering Ecosystem-Based Management
An ecosystem-based approach to management requires that
the integrity of the natural ecosystem and its key components,
structure and functions are upheld. This means maintaining
natural species diversity and protecting critical habitats
for all stages in species life cycles.
4. Learning-By-Doing
A key aspect of Canada and B.C.'s commitment to establishing
MPAs is the concept of using a learn-by-doing approach.
Both governments recognize that the process for MPA planning
should evolve and improve over time given the variations
between coastal regions, the dynamics of a marine environment,
and the information constraints concerning marine species,
processes and ecosystems. Flexibility and adaptability will
be required to meet effectively and efficiently the needs
of all marine resource users.
5. Taking a Precautionary Approach
Taking a precautionary approach means, "When in doubt,
be cautious." This principle puts the burden of proof
on any individual, organization or government agency conducting
activities that may cause damage to the marine ecosystem.
6. Managing for Sustainability
The MPA Strategy is intended to contribute to sustainability
in our marine environments. This means that resources in
areas requiring protection must be cared for in the present
so that they exist for future generations. In the marine
environment, emphasis will be placed on maintaining viable
populations of all species and on conserving ecosystem functions
and processes.
5.1 The Coastal Planning Framework
It is proposed that a network of MPAs would be developed
through coastal planning processes carried out at a number
of different levels. These may range from comprehensive
processes that plan for a wide variety of resource uses
and activities, to processes which focus on planning for
very specific purposes or for the resolution of defined
issues. Regardless of the level of planning for MPAs, public
participation will be a fundamental component of all processes,
with the principles of openness and inclusiveness forming
the basis.
This approach would enable the collaboration of all governments,
including First Nations, as well as stakeholders, advocacy
groups, communities and individuals in the identification
of important marine values and areas that warrant consideration
for MPA status. We are seeking a commitment from everyone
who has an interest to work together to establish a system
of MPAs for Canada's Pacific coast.
The coastal planning processes are to be collaborative
planning efforts, consistent with both the federal objectives
for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and provincial
objectives for coastal zone planning.
The establishment of a complete MPA system on the coast
would be largely dependent on the rate at which planning
processes occur, but a basic system is intended to be in
place by the year 2010.
5.2 Planning Regions for Marine Protected Areas
For the purposes of establishing an MPA system, six planning
regions have been identified, reflecting the variety of
oceanographic conditions, coastal physiography, management
issues, and communities along Canada's Pacific Coast (illustrated
in Sidebar #4):
1. The North Coast
2. The Queen Charlotte Islands
3. The Central Coast
4. The West Coast of Vancouver Island
5. The Strait of Georgia
6. The Offshore
A coastal planning process is already underway for the
Central Coast region. The Strait of Georgia region has also
been identified as a priority for such processes, and a
number of initiatives are currently being undertaken or
planned, such as the Georgia Basin Ecosystem Initiative
and a Pacific Marine Heritage Legacy commitment to assess
the feasibility of establishing a Marine Conservation Area
in the southern Strait of Georgia.
Sidebar #4: Proposed Marine Protected Area Planning Regions
and Pilot Sites for Canada's Pacific Coast
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